Could your grandmother who smokes be the reason you have asthma?

The European Respiratory Society’s International Congress in Amsterdam showed evidence of asthma being linked to smoking in previous generations. Asthma is the most common childhood disease and currently affects 8% of adults and 9.3% of children in the US according to the CDC. While that may not seem like a large percentage, the actual number of children affected is 6.8 million. That really opens your eyes to the issue. Originally, researchers thought that exposure to specific environmental changes were responsible but more and more evidence of smoking grandmothers are surfacing.

The first study took place in an entire population in Sweden from the grandmothers at the extra time of pregnancy. If the grandmother smoked, the asthma risk increased 10-22%. The results came to show that from 44,853 grandmothers tested, 66,271 grandchildren needed asthma medication. 

We already know genes can be affected by things like tobacco and other things we are exposed to but what we didn’t see before was that these changes can be dormant for generations but still be passed down.  In the US, researches thought that this could account for 98% of diseases inherited human diseases that are unaccounted for.

This could be a breakthrough in determining what exposures we face now can affect future generations. In my opinion, this is super important to our generation and future generations. While numbers of smokers has decreased significantly, asthma is still up there. Now that we know we could be affecting our future generations, we could really put an end to smoking and increase everyone's health. 

For the full story click here!
To look at a previous study on this click here

At Leiden University Medical Center, a team of pathologist carried out an experiment for procreating woman and those who have procreated and died. They ran an experiment by collecting tissue from 26 women who had died during or just after pregnancy. Each of the 26 woman carried sons. The scientists were looking for male cells in female bodies. The researchers found cells with Y chromosomes in every tissue sample they examined. These male cells were strangely uncommon. At most they only made up about one in every 1,000 cells. Significantly the male cells were present in every organ that the scientists had studied. The scientist studied brains, hearts, kidneys and etc. In the 1990s, scientists found that cells from both sons and daughters were exposed from the uterus and spread through a mother’s body. The new study suggests that women almost always acquire fetal cells each time they are pregnant. They have been detected as early as seven weeks into a pregnancy.

In later years, the cells may disappear, but sometimes, the cells settle in for a lifetime. They called the phenomenon fetal microchimerism. This specific name was named after the chimera. The Chimera is a monster from Greek mythology that was part lion, goat and dragon.

In recent years, researchers have found many clues suggesting that microchimerism can affect a woman’s health. Tumors may be jam packed with fetal cells. This suggested that they might help drive cancer. Yet other studies have suggested that fetal microchimerism protects women against the disease. “In each instance of a disease, it seems like there is this paradox,” said Amy M. Boddy, a postdoctoral fellow at Arizona State University.

Fetal microchimerism has been found in a number of mammal species. The species were dogs, mice and cows. It’s likely that fetal cells have been a part of maternal life for tens of millions of years. It is even suggested that fetal cells may produce chemicals that influence the mother’s biology. This would allow the fetuses to manipulate her from within. Some cells may help maintain the health of the mother by healing her wounds. Fetal cells are frequently found in breast tissue, even in milk.

Mothers also nurture their babies with body heat. The thyroid gland, located in the neck, acts like a thermostat. The fetal cells in the thyroid gland, in theory could cause mothers to generate more heat then otherwise done before. This biological tension might help explain how fetal microchimerism sometimes causes harm to a mother. It may simply be an occasional side effect of the cells’ manipulations.

URL:

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/15/science/a-pregnancy-souvenir-cells-that-are-not-your-own.html?_r=0

Yeast as a Superpower

Over a decade ago, scientists at Berkeley genetically engineered a strain of yeast that could produce Artemisinin, a malaria drug. Now, scientists in the Stanford laboratories are using the same concept to produce chemicals for other medicines, such as painkillers and cough medicine. The end goal of this method is to be able to produce these medicines at a lower cost.

In order for this to work, DNA from different sources such as plants, bacteria or some animals are inserted into the yeast. This coaxes the yeast into producing enzymes that will convert sugars into the desired chemical. Currently, the process is not efficient enough to be of any concern with respect to producing illegal drugs. Dr. Christina Smolke, the head of Stanford's bio-engineering team, stated that it would take 4,400 gallons of yeast in order to produce enough hydrocodone for one Vicodin tablet. The team believes that this could help to produce safer pain killers down the line by simply making minor changes in the strain, but the process is at least three years away from being efficient enough to do so.

This process could be a great resource in order to make painkillers or other drugs more widely available. After this process is improved, it could have a huge impact of the cost of medications. Other studies are making strains of yeast that can yield tetrahydrocannibinol (THC) found in marijuana plants. Those researchers plan to produce other substituents from marijuana in order to really evaluate the medicinal use of them. There is a question of increased risk of illegal drug use with this process, but it is very complex and would be challenging for the average person to reproduce the strains. I think this could give us more opportunity to find new drugs that are safer and more efficient.

A Gene For Herpes?

According to multiple studies, 9 out of 10 people carry the gene for herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1).  The only question was, why is it that if 90 percent of people carry the gene, only 20 percent of the population shows symptoms?  Recently, researchers from the University of Edinburgh, in Scotland, did a study taking blood samples from 20 people with cold sores.  When looking at their genes, the blood work showed that those with the cold sores had a mutation of the gene IL28B.  The researchers discovered that people who do not produce cold sores, those without the mutation, are able to produce the protein that keeps the virus inactive.  Therefore, those who do produce cold sores, who have the mutated IL28B gene, is not able to produce that protein and are then unable to have their immune system keep the virus under control.  Researchers now hope to find a way in which we can utilize this protein as a possible treatment for other infections caused by the HSV-1.

I found this to be very interesting, seeing as that my mom and my aunt both produce cold sores; therefore, they would have the IL28B mutation.  This then means, that even though I, myself, do not produce cold sores, I could still carry the HSV-1 gene.  Hopefully, researchers can find a way, just like they did for insulin and diabetes, to use the IL28B protein as a cure for HSV-1 and its related viruses.

Blood Test Predicts Suicidal Behavior Using Gene Changes

Millions of people try to or succeed in taking their own life each year.  As a doctor or psychiatrist, when determining if a person is likely to commit suicide, it is the professional's intuition that is being used.  Alexander Niculescu, of Indiana University in Indianapolis, found that chemicals in the blood may provide a clue of suicide.  Niculescu and collegues developed a blood test and a questionnaire that when used on 108 men receiving psychiatric treatment, it had a 92% accuracy as to whether they would develop suicide feelings over the next year.  To develop the test, the team took blood samples from 217 men who were undergoing psychiatric treatment. Gene expression was compared in 37 of the men who developed suicidal thoughts and in 26 deceased men who had committed suicide.  In this study, 11 gene changes were identified that could be biological markers for people who consider suicide.

Of these 11 genes, it was found that one of the genes, SKA2, indirectly affects the job of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (which deals with impulsive and negative thoughts).  When the gene becomes inactive, the HPA axis becomes heavily active which leads to negative thoughts.  Hyperactivity for this part of the brain, has been repeatedly linked to suicidal thoughts.  Another one of the genes linked to suicidal thoughts is SLC4A4.  This gene is linked to anxiety and panic attacks.  In some cases, suicidal thoughts can be similar to impulsive panic attacks.

This article circles around a very touchy, but real subject.  Suicide is real, as is depression, and many other diseases that affect brain chemical make-up.  It is astonishing how a blood test can detect changes in genes that have been evident to link to depression.  This blood test can be used during psychiatric treatments of people with depression and thoughts of suicide, by creating a treatment plan that fits to their diagnosis.  This blood test is another great way for psychiatrists and doctors to minimize the amount of people who commit suicide each year, as long as those people seek doctor's help.

Parasites Alter Butterfly Genomes Using Viruses

Genetically modified organisms (GMO's) are usually known as a creation of human, but insect studies show otherwise. Researchers have found modified genetics in butterflies and moths, but they weren't caused from humans. These modified genetics were caused by a virus that weaves through DNA. Parasitic insects known as braconid wasps lay eggs inside of caterpillars and hatch into larvae. The wasps also inject bracoviruses that incorporate themselves into the genome of caterpillars. These modifications will be passed on to other generations. Scientists believe that some butterflies and moths have kept these wasp genes because they protect against other viruses that could be harmful. Scientists also believe that insects that are genetically modified by humans have the potential to transfer to other insects, and therefore we must be fully aware of what genes are modified.

This article was very interesting to read. I am on the fence about genetically modified organisms, and when I found out that insects that are genetically modified by humans have the potential to spread those modified genetics to other insects, it pushed me even further away from GMO's. What was also very interesting is that the wasp virus can completely change the genome of a caterpillar, and that genome is passed on to other generations. This is the first time I've heard of naturally occurring GMO's.

Original Link

Blame Your Genes for Attracting Mosquitoes

Did you ever wonder why someone is getting constantly bit by mosquitoes, while others are not getting bit at all? Why are mosquitoes more attracted to certain people? In a recent study, scientists found that mosquitoes fly toward certain body odors, which is influenced by your genetic makeup.

The study consisted of 8 pairs of identical twins and 19 pairs of nonidentical twins, all female. They found that expert sniffers were able to match the scents to the identical twins and then tested the identical and nonidentical twins to see which were more attractive to the mosquitoes.The research revealed that the participants' attractiveness to mosquitoes was more similar in identical twins than the non-identical twins, which supports their idea that your genetic makeup influences the odor that attracts mosquitoes.

There is more research that must be done to support this idea. This could be extremely useful in the future to prevent malaria, which has killed thousands of people as a result of contracting it through mosquitoes. One author of the study, James Logan, predicts, "In the future, we may even be able to take a pill which will enhance the production of natural repellents by the body and ultimately replace skin lotions,"

This could be helpful for the future because personally, I believe the chemical repellents we currently use are toxic to humans and over time may harm us more than we know. If it were possible to use this genetic research to formulate an oral prevention method, it would not only prevent people from contracting malaria, but also repel mosquitoes in a less harmful way to our bodies. 

Genetic link between smoking and lung disease

 At Queen’s Medical Centre at the University of Nottingham, Prof. Ian Hall has created a study to find out what causes chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The goal was to study how genetics coincide with airflow obstruction and smoking behavior. The team looked at how genetics is involved with the smoking behaviors and the “lung phenotypes.” There was evidence that both smokers and nonsmokers had lung deficits caused by genetics. This lead them to believe that smoking and genetics are independent variables causing COPD.

The study itself varied from people who had never smoked before to heavy smokers. These people were also chosen whether they had high or low forced expiratory volume (how much air a person can exhale during a forced breath and is captured through spirometry). The FEV was studied to determine if the different FEV variations were related to genetic causes of different phenotypes. Using a new genotyping array, the scientists could compare lung health and smoking behavior with different genetic variations for the entire human genome.

The results showed six independent genetic variants with both lung health and COPD, but they also found genetic variants related with COPD in people who had never smoked. The fact that the team found the same sequence of a genome in both smokers and non smokers shows how variable gene regulation is. This study sheds light on airflow obstruction, COPD, and tobacco addiction and also how evident it is that genetic build can cause airflow obstruction whether they smoke or not. The researchers do think that further research should be done with the genetic factors to expand on the current study, they also think that this study thus will lead to prevention and treatment with COPD and hopefully help people stop smoking in the long run. 
I think this is super important because so many people are affected by COPD and it is important to know how it is caused. Even if you don't smoke you could still be at risk from gene variation, this could be from second hand smoke, the main goal is to stop smoking and increase lung health.

For more on this study click here! 
For more on how smoking can cause lung diseases click here!

Genetic Test Identifies Which Breast Cancer Patients Can Avoid Chemotherapy

A new study published in The New England Journal of Medicine might lead to a different course of action following a diagnosis of breast cancer. The study looked at the effectiveness of a genetic test called Oncotype DX.  The test looks for a number of genes in breast tissue that are cancer-related and gives a score, with a higher score (ranging from 0-100) indicating a greater risk for recurrence in breast cancer.

"The team found that around 99% of low-risk women treated with hormone therapy alone did not experience breast cancer recurrence within 5 years. What is more, the rate of invasive disease-free survival at 5 years was almost 94%, while the risk of cancer returning at a distant site was less than 1%."

While the study is still ongoing, these early results offer hope to women all over the world. The study shows that some methods of treatment can even be entirely hormone-based without fear or recurrence. If alternative treatments (such as the hormone therapy) can be used, a large portion of the risk of treatment related to chemotherapy would no longer be an issue.

The World's Last Wild Horses

Humans have domesticated horses for thousands of years. They are very useful livestock for the survival of humans; they are mainly used for transportation of people or supplies. By 1870, most species of horses were domesticated, besides the Przewalski's horses which were generally based in the steppes of Mongolia and China. This species became endangered in the mid-20th century, and as a result of this, the Przewalski's horses were no longer free, being kept in captivity in an effort to conserve this species.

In a recent study, scientists have sequenced the complete genomes of eleven Przewalski's horses and have found lineages that lead back to the ancestors of this species. These horses have been connected by gene flow long after this species has diverged from the rest of the horses. This dates back to about 45,000 years ago, and humans have domesticated horses since about 5,500 years ago.

Unfortunately, as a result of this endangered species' captivity, there is lower genetic diversity, inbreeding, and sometimes the introduction of genes from domesticated animals. One of the researchers, Ludovic Orlando, has stated, "Even though Przewalski's horses went through an extreme demographic collapse, the population seems to recover and is still genetically diverse." My personal reflection on this is that any endangered species (with the exception of mosquitoes) is worth the efforts of trying to salvage. Although there are very few of these horses left, it is great that the species is headed in a good direction, and as stated by Orlando, "There is, thus, hope for [other] endangered populations, fighting similar demographic issues."

Deep Space Sugars, Key to Origin of Life?

The scientists over at the University of Nice Sophia Antipolis had discovered sugars found within the ice of comets and meteorites located in deep space which could help explain how these massive objects came and seeded our planet with life. When the universe was first being created, ice was the most abundant solid and later on scientist found out that the combination of cosmic rays and ultraviolet light could cause these ice particles to be transformed into the precursors of organic matter. The stuff that makes up lipids and proteins. Now however, scientists have found out that there are sugars encapsulated within these ice chunks when they were attempting to re-create the evolution of an ice chunk as if it were traveling through space. They realized that sugars are also the backbone and support of nucleotides which are the foundation of nucleic acid that make up such molecules like DNA and RNA. Researchers have stated that they did not create life however, they merely created the building blocks of life.

How Old Are You?

Researchers can now determine an individual’s biological age by reading a “signature” based on hundred and fifty genes. A person biological age can be different than his or her chronological age. The biological age is a better measure for a person’s health. The biological age is closely tied to risk of age-related diseases such as Alzheimer’s and dementia. These researchers tested their methods in a group of participants that were all 70 years old. They discovered that higher scores were associated with better health.  While lower healthy gene was found in in patients diagnosed with Alzheimer’s.  It’s still unclear if lower health genes could determine if a person will develop Alzheimer disease.

I think this research could lead to some amazing things in the future. If a patient knows their healthy genes are low they could take preventive measures as they get older. Hopefully they can find a direct relationship with all people with lower healthy genes and Alzheimer. The only downfall with the biological age is that insurance companies could charge more if a person biological age is higher than their chronological age. 

How Some Smokers Stay Healthy

A British team of scientists funded by the Medical Research Council have recently discovered genetic differences that increases someone's likelihood of becoming addicted to cigarettes. The team, led by Ian Hall, found that certain DNA profiles have a lower risk of developing COPD, a collection of lung-related diseases. This DNA profile works regardless of external factors, like smoking. The genes linked to this profile are believed to affect the way the lungs grow and respond to injury. Unfortunately, the team also discovered a DNA profile that tended to increase the likelihood of developing lung disorders. This DNA profile helps to explain why many nonsmokers develop COPD. The team hopes that this research can help lead to better treatments for COPD.

Along with this discovery, the team was the first to discover five sections of DNA that can be linked to becoming a heavy smoker. These sections appear to affect the brain's functions in response to nicotine. This relationship is still being researched to better understand the process. Hall says that this research can help lead to more targeted treatments and can help combat those addicted to cigarettes beat the addiction.

This article help clarify something that I have always been confused about, that being that there are so many heavy smokers that appear to be very healthy individuals. Hopefully this research leads to not only treatments for lung disorders, but better methods to help smokers quit. This habit can be so life altering and there needs to be better ways to help people quit. While I do not believe that many current or future smokers will care that there are DNA profiles that increase the likelihood of developing COPD, I do think that this discovery can help sway some future smokers from beginning this habit.

The original article can be found here.

Apples Will No Longer Brown Thanks to Genetics

          Brown apples are now a thing of the past; 2015 brings with it a breed of genetically modified apple that no longer browns when cut or bruised, thanks to the Canadian company Okanagan Specialty Fruits. According to the CNN article announcing the approval of the genetically modified apples, "Scientists working on genetically engineered plants and animals typically add--rather than remove--genes to formulate more desirable variations of their products." The scientists of Okanagan were able to "turn off" the enzyme that typically causes apple to brown after being exposed to the air.
          Ever since the start of the release of genetically modified organisms (GMO's) to the produce market, skeptics have been criticizing the unknown effects that the modified produce could potentially have on our health. For example, the Non-GMO Project has been working to inform consumers about GMO's and how little we know of their effects on human health. Neal Carter, founder and president of Okanagan, however, assures that "these trees produce flowers and fruit of the same composition and analysis [as conventional apples]." GMO's have been, and will continue to be debated upon, as they become more prevalent in markets as they are modified to survive douses of pesticide or to fend off insects. Carter further believes that his company shouldn't be forced to use a GMO label on its apples. "Label it just like any other apple. ... Let the consumer decide."
          I am personally also a skeptic of certain GMO's. Science has made leaps and bounds in terms of making safer, larger, more nutritious produce for the consumer. However, a non-browning apple will never cue us when it is expired. Too much modification in society is a bit overwhelming, and I think that we need to slow down to understand the effects of GMO's before further modifying the products on the market.

Whales and Synthetic Blood

 Researchers have recently been studying the ways of the whale and their ability to hold their breath for up to two hours while remaining active. The proteins that allow the whale to do this have helped biochemists and researchers close in on the possibility of creating synthetic blood. Researchers have done this by comparing the muscle protein myoglobin from humans, whales, and other deep-diving mammals. 

"Myoglobin holds oxygen for ready use inside muscle cells, and the study found that marine mammals have ultra-stable versions of myolobin that tend not to unfold. The researchers found that stability was the key for cells to make large amounts of myoglobin, which explains why deep-diving mammals can load their muscle cells with far more myoglobin than humans." (Rice University)

The scientist observing these proteins plans to maximize the amount of hemoglobin that a bacterium can express. In doing this research has shown that protein stability is the key. 

I enjoyed this article because it leads hopeful for trauma patients that are in need of immediate blood transfusion. It also could provide hospitals with a greater blood supply, allowing patients to receive blood quicker and more efficiently. 

This is a very interesting article and goes more in to depth about this topic. Check it out here!

Human Genes Can Save Yeast

Human genes were found to prevent the microorganisms from dying in yeast. An experiment done showed that 400 human-to-yeast gene replacements performed found about 50 percent helped resolve a missing vital function. Baker's yeast shared a common ancestor with humans about a billion years ago. Biologist Edward Marcotte mentioned that when you read DNA and look at their genomes you can notice equivalencies. 

       The shared genes were similar and the task was to see if the human protein can replace the gene in a yeast cell. Tests were performed on whether transfer of the equivalent, or orthologous, human gene could save the yeast from dying. The experiment found that 43% of the gene replacements could save the yeast. I found this article very interesting because it shows the different ways the genes in our body can be implemented to help scientific research and learn new discoveries.

http://news.sciencemag.org/biology/2015/05/yeast-can-live-human-genes
 http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/43043/title/Human-Genes-Can-Save-Yeast

Mini Hearts and Livers Being 3D Printed

With a 3-D printer, Anthony Atala and his team at Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine created mini organs, hearts and liver in this case.  The hearts were created by using human skin cells that was reprogrammed to act as heart cells and were clumped together in a cell culture. The printer then printed them into the desired shape and size, .25 millimeters.

The scaled down organs was developed to mimic the function of their life size counterparts and could eventually be used for testing new treatments and probe the effects of viruses and chemicals on human tissues.

This approach is being developed to replace animal testing due the cost of procuring, feeding and sheltering animals and animal testing doesn’t always produce the desired results that are applicable to humans. So if human organs and tissue could be reproduced cheaply in a lab it would be beneficial to drug companies and university for testing and teaching. 
I would enjoy working on the same experiment.  I think it would be great to make 3-D human body parts for research or transplants for amputees.  The further this experiment and technique gets the cheaper and more readily available this would be.  Schools could make perfect replications of the cells or organism that will be needed in a lab instead of keeping and maintaining lab animals. 

Original link:  https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn27383-mini-3d-printed-organs-mimic-beating-heart-and-liver/

Another link for a team at Princeton University who is showing off their 3-D printing ear: http://www.nature.com/news/the-printed-organs-coming-to-a-body-near-you-1.17320#gallery

That Stinky Cheese is a Result of Evolutionary Overdrive

Did you know that cheese makers use a particular species of mold to come up with the many cheese flavors we eat today? Have you also thought about the genetic histories of mold and how it adapts to life on cheese curds?

Dr. Robert Rodriquez de la Vega and his scientists reported to the journal Current Biology, that cheese makers have thrown their mold into evolutionary drive. Roquefort was one of the first cheeses made in France in a traditional way. The cheese makers used to take loaves of bread and leave in caves. Inside of them Penicillium roquefort would grow on the walls and eventually attack the bread. Then they would take of pieces of the bread and put them on the curds, so the mold would grow on them. In the early 1900s scientists identified what these species were and made it possible for scientists in the laboratories to select certain strains of mold to produce cheese. Could this mean that mold is a genetically modified organism?

Over centuries, mold has picked up large chunks of DNA from other species in order to adapt on cheese curds. Dr. Rodriquez de la Vega and his colleagues were curious about how mold changed once people started using them to make cheese. They were able to see the similarities of these genes, but also noticed chunks of DNA that did not look similar. The genes that looked different were actually genes that were an identical form of distantly relative species. This kind of swapping is called horizontal gene transfer. Horizontal gene transfer is when one organism takes a piece of DNA from another species and creates it own genome. Dr. Rodriquez de la Vega found out that up to 5 percent of the entire genome of each mold was made up of DNA from another species. So this means that new flavors are able to be made, but also gives mold that contaminate cheese a chance to spread and pick up modified genes.

In opinion, I always wanted to know how the different cheese flavors came about. I am only familiar with the common cheeses like cheddar, provolone, american, and pepper jack. I have never seen cheese that was blue, but had an acquired taste like roqueforti. It is interesting how mold can alter genes and change the either the texture of cheese or even its appearance. I also wonder in what ways can cheesemakers protect their cheese from contamination. Can the modified genes be reversed, so the cheese is no longer contaminated?

To read more about the article click here!

Omega 3 Fatty Acids, Non-benefical Without a Specific Gene

Since the 1970s, society was led to believe that omega 3 fatty acids, found in fish oil, help prevent heart disease. Now contrary to that belief, new studies show that the original study was incorrect and few people can actually metabolize omega 3. According to a New York Times article, "Inuit Study Adds Twist to Omega-3 Fatty Acids’ Health Story", those of Inuit descent have a specific gene which allows them to metabolize omega 3 fatty acids. Since the Inuit people lived in the Arctic for many generations and their only source of food was fish and meat, their population had to adapt to survive. Thus, the entire population eventually acquired this gene due to natural selection. This gene which is only found in 25 percent of the Chinese population and 2 percent of the European population, is now in almost every Inuit.

It is amazing to see an example of natural selection in homo sapiens; in first world countries it is easy to forget about natural selection because of the technologies which are used to prolong the lives of those with genetic defects. This is exemplified by artificial insemination; people who cannot have kids because of faulty genes are now able to have children because technology is advanced enough to bypass natural processes. I also find it interesting that Danish scientists concluded that fish oil prevents heart disease just because the Inuits have a low heart disease rate. There could have been many genetic factors to create this low rate, but despite all possibilities they decided fish oil was the true cause of the low rate. The Inuit people did not all originally have this gene; the number of those who possessed this gene was probably similar to those of China (25%), but after many generations of living without vegetation, the only Inuits which were able to survive were the ones with this gene. This event depicts a perfect example of natural selection in homo sapiens.   

Scientists are Now Designing Babies?

It was inevitable that the scientists in the United Kingdom would ask for permission to start to alter human embryos. China has already started doing research to alter human life to reduce a genetic blood disorder. Now it seems to be the United Kingdom's turn, more specifically the Crick Institute in London. The United Kingdom wants to genetically alter human embryos to reduce miscarriages. They would be the first to do it with the nation's approval. The team proposes that they will genetically alter embryos by using a gene-editing tool known as CRISPR/Cas9. This tool allows them to cut and paste DNA within a living cell, much like typing on a Word document. The researcher uses a particular protein to seek out a gene to cut it out of the genome and to substitute it with DNA of their choice. The gene editor will turn on or off individual genes during the early development stages so the team can study the affects those alterations have on embryonic development. 

The team will have to legally destroy the embryos within the 14-day time frame that was written in their application. The troubling part is what happens if they do not destroy the embryos? It could get extremely out of hand with laboratories having the power to "design babies" for any potential purpose. Once science figures out how to alter embryos, who knows if or when scientists will know when to stop? This is especially concerning in research laboratories that are private and not federally funded. Who knows what could be brewing in those laboratories.

Although this next step in science is exciting and could be a great thing. It is life altering, literally. The United States has banned this research for a reason. It is very dangerous for anyone to have this much power, the power to design a human being. It reminds me of when Adolf Hitler was trying to create the master race by reducing the possibilities of those with "weak" genes to reproduce. I think this is a line that once science crosses we cannot come back from it. It is a very controversial topic not only of scientific discovery but also of morals and ethics. In my opinion science is going too far. Improving or healing lives is very different from creating them. 

If you're interested in learning more about the research being conducted, you can find information here! 

Why are calico cat predominantly female?

It is a well known fact that calico cats are mostly female; male calico cats do exist, but this can only happen if the cat has Klinefelter Syndrome, which will be explained later. The reason why only female calico cats is because of a concept called Sex-Linked Genes, a concept that certain traits are determined by the sex chromosomes of an organism.

This diagram shows the X and Y
chromosome relationship with fur
color. 

Fur color in cats is determined by the X chromosome, so in most cases, the genotype of the mother cat will determine what kind of fur color the offspring will have. Since male cats have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome, the male cat's color will be determined by the one X chromosome. For example, if the mother has a X chromosome that expresses orange fur, the son will have orange fur. If the mother has black fur, the son will have black fur.

This idea is more complex in daughter cats. If a daughter has two X chromosomes that express the same fur color, a process called Lyonization will occur. Lyonization is a process that occurs during the blastula stage of embryonic development, and arises randomly in each cell. In each cell, one of the X chromosomes is coiled into a Barr Body, leaving the remaining X chromosome of express the trait. For example, if a daughter has two X chromosomes that express black fur, then one of those chromosomes will become a Barr Body, and the other chromosome will express the black fur in the phenotype. Once again, this is only at the cellular level

Calico cats have two different kinds of X chromosomes- one that expresses black fur and one for orange fur. The cats will not express both of these traits in the same cell; instead, each cell will express only black fur or only orange fur. In Lyonization, both X chromosomes will be separated, and be accompanied by their own Barr Body. Afterwards, each cell will arise from either the X chromosome that expresses from orange fur, or from the X chromosome that expresses black fur. This results in various patches that occur throughout the body called a tortoiseshell coloration.

Male calico cats are the result of Kilnefelter Syndrome, which is when a cat has two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome. The two X chromosomes will be one that expresses orange fur and one that expresses black fur. The only problem with this process is that the male calico cats become unfertile.

First Article

Second Article

Third Article

Viruses that Can Fight Bacteria?!

  Scientists have already studied and tested viruses to eat bacteria, however, targeting specific bacteria is takes time and is costly. According to Timothy Lu from MIT, he and his team have created a new system that can swap genes in order to customize viruses to eat any pathogenic bacteria. Lu says, "These bacteriophages are designed in a way that's relatively modular. You can take genes and swap them in and out and get a functional phage that has new properties."
   One goal of this new system is to assist in killing bacteria that do not have any effective antibiotics. Another is to perhaps assist in other human functions like digestion. In the human digestive tract, there is bacteria to help with digestion but also others causing disease, the they hope to see some "edits" in the bacteria to keep the disease causing bacteria to a minimum so that the use of antibiotics is reduced. Antibiotics can not specify which bacteria are to be removed, resulting in targeting both the friendly and disease causing bacteria.
  For the study, the team chose a bacteriophage T7 that attacks Escherichia coli. The phage is made up of a head and a tail, the tail is what attacks the target. The team substituted genes in the tail of T7 that resulted in a phage that could target a several different types of bacteria.  The team believes they have created a more simple and quick process through this. The researches were able to redesign the tail of T7 by researching new sequences that are similar for the tail of T7. Once the structures were found, swapping them out was not as labor induced as they had thought. They also found that putting the genome into a yeast cell made it easier for the gene-swap.
   The MIT team showed that their study could help changed phages to specifically attack strains of Gram-negative bacteria, which has few antibiotics against it. 
  David Bikard from the Institut Pasteur in Paris says, "This is a big step in the development of phage therapies with predictable outcomes and a good demonstration of what synthetic biology approaches will bring to medicine in the near future."
I think this article was interesting in the fact that we can use viruses, which we all hates, to fight bacteria, another thing we all hate (mostly). I'm looking forward to see what advantages that will bring us in the future and how it can better our health. 

  
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For more on bacteria fighting viruses click here!

"Basophil-associated OX40 Ligand Participates in the Initiation of Th2 Responses during Airway Inflammation"

Immune mechanisms are not well understood in general, let alone in mechanisms relating to asthma, a respiratory condition that can result from sensitivity to allergens, leading to increased mucus production. While there are medications and solutions to asthmatic symptoms, a more helpful application would be trying to understand the reasons, at a molecular level, for these symptoms. When asthma is triggered, CD4 T helper (Th) cells, eosinophils, mast cells, and basophils accumulate and cause an overproduction of mucus. By understanding the mechanism that causes the response, it is possible to try and prevent inflammation that leads to the easily observable response. The experiment discussed used genetically specific mice that served as an effective model for this type of research (ovalbumin- induced allergic airway inflammation model), due to the fact that it emulates what occurs in humans. Basophils from the lungs of the OVA- challenged mice were transfused into wild-type (WT) mice. It was found that primarily basophils initiate Th2 cells, as well as the fact that, after observing molecular markers CD40, CD80/86, and MHC II, basophils from the lungs were capable of absorbing antigens.

One of the things that the research attempted to address was the relationship between the OX40-OX40L interaction and Th2 initiation when basophils were studied. This interaction factors into the regulation of T cell function and activation. It was of interest because many studies dealing with immune cells in patients with mild asthma featured increased expression of OX40 and OX40L, which are ligands, or molecules that will usually bond to larger molecules.

In the results section, it was found that OX40L increased after OVA stimulation by comparison to a control group, showing it is possible that this molecule is most relevant in the early phase of asthma. Basophils (from bone marrow) were also shown to significantly express OX40L when stimulated with DNP- OVA and antiDNP IgE (an antibody). Additionally, it was discovered that blocking the OX40-OX40L interaction with Anti- OX40L reduces inflammation by comparing OVAisotype Ab mice with the mice injected with OX40L Ab. One of the things that the experiment did not completely clarify was how basophils allow T cells to differentiate into Th2 cells, it was only found that OX40L might bind OX40 and then lead to Th2 differentiation. Arguably, the most significant finding was that the percentage of CD4 IL-4 Th2 cells in BasophilOX40L group was a lot lower than the isotype Ab basophil group. This leads to the assumption that when the OX40-OX40L interaction is blocked, Th2 responses are decreased.

If I were researching this topic, I would certainly want to replicate the introduction of particular antibodies to basophils. OX40 in particular was difficult to visualize and study. I could wonder, are there any cases where even when the OX40-OX40L interaction is blocked, Th2 responses are not decreased and override the attempt to block its course?


The link to the actual article- http://www.jbc.org/content/290/20/12523.full.pdf

Gene Therapy is Now Treating Blood Disease

Hemophilia B, also called factor IX, is a genetic disorder in which factor IX is missing and prevent clotting of the blood. There is about a 0.02% chance of a live birth being affected by the disease in the United States. Each race is affected differently by the disease and different ethnicities show different frequencies of the disease affecting live births. There are vast efforts to hopefully cure the disease on day. In Britain six patients ailed with the disease were treated for it by being injected with the correct form of the defective gene. This is quite the achievement for gene therapy, especially since it began to carry a bad reputation after the early 2000's. Many doctors say that this break through could potentially bring the field of genetic therapy back into the modern medical industry.

The general concept of gene therapy consists of replacing defective genes in any genetic disease with the corrected genetic sequence. Although it sounds simple, carrying out this task is much more difficult that thought to be. The corrected gene will be placed into a virus, with the hope that the virus will inject cells and distribute the DNA. However, the immune system seems to be a little too successful with killing viruses.

With the advance that this injection of the corrected gene of factor IX has provided however, it has not only given insight on how to treat hemophilia B, but also how to possibly treat multiple other diseases in the future. This treatment has opened many doors to possibly being able to treat other genetic disorders. Also the way that this specific blood type was treated may be able to shed some light on the ability of eukaryotes to use corrected DNA sequences. A very close family friend of ours has hemophilia, and this cure if it comes to the United States could give her her life back by reducing the number of transfusions and medications she needs to take daily. I think that the cure for this type of hemophilia is ground breaking and can only further genetic technology in the medical field.

The original article can be found here.
The National Hemophilia Foundation's link can be found here.

At Chernobyl, Hints of Nature's Adaptation

Dr. Mousseau, a biologist at the University of South Carolina, has been traveling to Chernobyl and surrounding contaminated areas since 1999. He has closely studied the genetic mutations that have occurred in the plant and animal life since the nuclear meltdown in 1986.

Though dozens of papers, Dr. Mousseau and his partner Anders Pape Moller have reporting evidence supporting the major toll of radiation on organisms. They reported that there was a higher frequency in tumors and physical abnormalities, like deformed beaks among birds, in organisms that live in high radiation areas compared to low radiation areas.

The most recent findings, showed something new. They reported in the journal Functional Ecology that some birds actually adapted to the radioactive environment by producing higher levels of protective antioxidants to minimize genetic damage. Dr. Mousseau stated that for these birds, constant exposure to radiation seems to be a kind of "unnatural selection" driving evolutionary change.

With the studies he has done in Chernobyl, Mousseau is now using that knowledge to predict what will happen to the environment around the Fukushima plant in Japan, that had a nuclear meltdown in 2011. Although Chernobyl and the Fukushima were completely different accidents, both caused radioactive contamination over a wide area.  He as already made a few trips to Fukushima and is seeing Chernobyl- like effects in the area surrounding the plant.

" If we find the same sort of dose response in both places," he said, " that provides incredible strength to the hypothesis that it is indeed radiation that is leading to the negative impacts."

Dr. Mousseau does state that it should be a couple of years of more research and analysis until he can be confident about the impact.

http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/06/science/nature-adapts-to-chernobyl.html

A Pregnancy Souvenir: Cells That Are Not Your Own

A team of pathologists at Leiden University Medical Center in the Netherlands found that chromosomes from a growing fetus venture off into the mother's body and into many different organs and tissues.  

It was easier to distinguish this in mothers bearing sons because the chromosome that distinguishes males from females is the Y chromosome (male sex chromosome).  

The pathologists started by collecting tissue from 26 women who had died during or after giving birth to their male babies.  It was found that there were Y chromosomes found in every tissue sample taken!(brains, hearts, kidneys, etc.)

This phenomenon was linked to fetal microchimerism, identified in the 1990s by scientists that found that cells from both sons and daughters could leave through the uterus and into many different cells of the body.  This name is derived from the Greek mythology monster, Chimera, that was a goat, lion and dragon all at once.

Recent studies suggest that women always acquire fetal cells each time they become pregnant and these cells can linger in her system for a long time or can eventually disappear.  It is controversial whether or not these cells can be beneficial or harmful to an expecting mother because of the different studies done and what beneficial and hindering effects pregnancy may have on a mother (better healing abilities, postpartum depression or even cancer?).  

More studies will develop over time to better understand the significance of fetal cells in pregnant mothers

I think this is so interesting.  Who would have known that male chromosomes could be swimming around in a mother during and after her pregnancy?  It probably would have been detected sooner but it is easier to distinguish the Y chromosome of a son in the body of a female as opposed to an X chromosome in a female from an unborn daughter.

To read the full article click here or here

Four-Stranded DNA

The double helix DNA structure has been known to hold the chemical code for all life. Recent studies have found that this is not entirely true. Scientist have found four-stranded DNA in human cells. High concentration of quadruplexes have been linked with DNA replication errors such as cancer. Scientist have found a way to stop the quadruplexes from dividing. Therefore, this may be an exciting new way to prevent cancer cells from spreading. However, the four-strand helix is still new information. Scientist are not sure if the quadruplexes have a purpose or if it’s made completely by accident. We still need to do a lot more experiments before anyone can consider using this information to help cancer patients.

The double helix DNA has been engraved into my head so badly that I didn’t even consider that there may be variations to DNA structure. If the quadruplexes do play a big role in cancer development, we may have just discovered a way to attack tumors at their root. We may be years away before we can use this information to our advantage. Also, I don’t believe this may be the final step in curing cancer, but I do think that this may be one more step in the right direction.

New Blood Test Can Reveal Past Viruses

Scientists from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute have developed a new approach to sampling blood for past viruses.  This new method called VirScan allows a single drop of blood to be analyzed for more than one factor that might be affecting a person's health, rather than just one virus. It is an inexpensive way, costing $25, to analyze viruses in a larger population.  This new technology searches for antibodies of the 206 known viruses to humans.  The team intends to take the technology further and look for "antibodies that attack a person's own tissue in autoimmune diseases that are associated with cancer." (HHMI)
In my opinion, this is a great way to look into a patients medical history, at a very inexpensive cost. I think that this could allow researchers to look into a patients history and create tailored drugs that could potentially lead to effective treatments. I would like to read more on this topic and see what researchers have done with their findings.

To read the full article click here!

Down Syndrome better detected in DNA blood test than "standard methods?"

 Dr. Mary Norton (UCSF) conducted a study of about 16,000 pregnant women and found that a cell-free DNA blood test performed at about 10-14 weeks gestation was able to diagnose Down syndrome more accurately than the standard screening methods. This test was also more effective in diagnosing Edwards syndrome and Patau syndrome, than the standard methods.
 In the United States alone, down syndrome is the most common genetic condition and it affects nearly 1 in every 700 babies born. Down syndrome occurs when an extra chromosome 21 is created and is copied in the cells through the body. As we know there are characteristics from this extra chromosome like flattened fatal features, reduced muscle tone, upward slanting eyes and small hands and feet.
  All pregnant women are offered testing and screenings for Down syndrome. During the first trimester, a test of both protein levels and hormones in the woman's blood are combined and to check for chromosomal abnormality linkage along with an ultrasound that measures the baby's neck tissue for increased fluid build up that could result in abnormalities. The results of the test and the ultrasound are compared with the mother's age to determine the risk of the baby having down syndrome.
  Pregnant women who are at a high risk of having a baby with down syndrome are recommnded to have the cell-free fetal DNA (cfDNA) test. This consists of a small amount of fetal DNA taken from the pregnant woman's blood, to detect any copies of chromosome 21. Dr. Norton and her team have said the cfDNA test has proved itself to be highly accurate in HIGH-risk women, however for the lower-risk women, the results are not as clear.
  For the cfDNA test, Dr. Norton and her team had 18,955 pregnant women from around age 30 from 35 different medical centers in over six countries. About 24% of these women were over 35, which increases the risk of down syndrome, giving the other 76% a lower risk. during the 10-14 week gestation, each woman was given the first trimester combined test AND the cfDNA test. Out of the 18,955, the team was able to get the test results and monitor pregnancy outcomes for 15,841 of the women.
   The team found that the cfDNA test was able to identify 38 cases of down syndrome while the first trimester test only detected 30 out of 38 cases. It was also learned that the cfDNA resulted in nine false-positive results while the first trimester combined test showed 854. There was also the detection in Edwards syndrome and Patau syndrome in the cfDNA test which was not as accurately found in the first trimester combined test.
  The result of the cfDNA test in women with a lower risk will lead to fewer false-positive results than the standard screening which in the overall result, there can be fewer invasive tests and related miscarriages, but health care providers and pregnant women themselves do need to be aware of the downfalls of the cfDNA testing much like any new study. The normal screening will capture a wider range of abnormalities.
I found this article to be really interesting. I think it is great that they are able to use blood tests rather than more invasive testing methods because it can be more comfortable and save more lives. The only downside to this like the article mentioned was that this blood test is not able to pick up a lot of other diseases or genetic mutations that the standard methods are able to identify. Maybe in the future that will be an advancement to look for!

Original article
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